The local presence of evaporites in the Mamf basin leads to groundwaters of sodium-chloride composition (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Seasonal prey availability estimates for Hwange used in this analysis were taken from published road transect data for Sinamatella, Main Camp and Ngamo areas, which cover our study area [36]. Seasonal geographic information on waterholes was available and allowed us to calculate for each kill the distance to the nearest waterhole containing water (distance-to-water) using ArcView 3.2 nearest neighbour extensions (ESRI 2004). The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. Here we investigate potential seasonality in the diet, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. Average distance-to-water revealed that lions typically kill between 1 and 4 km from a waterhole, with elephant and giraffe being the species killed most often the closest to a waterhole, and kudu and small antelopes killed the furthest away (Fig. Unfortunately, it is also a country where wildlife is subject to a wide and intense array of human pressures. Seasonal variation in the relative contribution by different prey species to lion kills, for males (M) and females (F), distinguishing age class proportions. Further, it revealed the opportunistic hunting behaviour of lions for prey as diverse as elephants and mice, with elephants taken mostly as juveniles at the end of the dry season during droughts. doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2020.004, Return to the index pages: During this time game sightings were spectacular. Here, we investigate the seasonal contribution of the different herbivore species, prey preference and distribution of kills (i.e. Bibliographic reference: Upton K, Dochartaigh B and Bellwood-Howard I. Male lions showed a preference for medium Bovidae in the early dry and wet seasons, and for Suidae in the late dry and wet seasons (Fig. Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution. The remaining species contributed less than 5% per species. Windhoek Buffalo emerged as the primary prey species for lions in Hwange (for both males and females) with a high contribution to lion diet throughout the year, and a strong selection by lions in all seasons. The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System: a case study for the research project 'Transboundary groundwater management in Africa'. Generally sodium-bicarbonate or iron/magnesium/calcium-bicarbonate type. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. Some - eg Mamf - contain evaporites. The hydrogeology map shows a simplified version of the type and productivity of the main aquifers at a national scale (see the Hydrogeology Map resource page for more details). The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. Consequently, waterhole areas are attractive for all herbivores in the dry season and attractive for grazers in the wet season, which corresponds to the period when most grazers have their young. Where is the Republic of Cameroon located in the world? Across-ecosystems, comparisons of large mammalian carnivore diet have now provided a good understanding of the preferred prey weight range of several carnivore species [6][8], but local studies are still needed to unravel the role of environmental factors and prey availability. Kill sites were classified based on the forensic evidence of a kill. Map developed from World Wildlife Fund HydroSHEDS; Digital Chart of the World drainage; and FAO Inland Water Bodies. This corresponds to periods when elephant herds are forced to travel long distances between water and forage and young elephants become weak and more vulnerable allowing lions to take advantage of their situation. 2009). 1998). With the help of hydrology experts and in support of the kenya wildlife service, we have drilled 32 boreholes, including 29 boreholes in the tsavo conservation area. For kill data, we reported the relative contribution of each prey age class per season. Windhoek, Affordable Chobe & Okavango Delta Safari Review, Registered Members of these Organizations, 2nd floor, Tygervalley It provides fresh water for an entire community. Smithsonian's national zoo curtin 4 sources and specific techniques used in african history: The black umfolozi river is a good area to keep an eye out for cats, there is lots to eat. Discover the magic of Devils Pool at Victoria Falls all your questions answered! Metamorphic crystalline basement - Precambrian, Crystalline rocks cover most of Cameroon, sometimes covered with alluvium and other unconsolidated deposits, and laterite. Overall, juveniles represented one third of the zebra carcasses found. Zeke Davidson, Here, we used a combination of the two approaches to provide the most complete description of lion diet in Hwange National Park, an approach that has already proved very useful for large carnivore diet in other systems [3][4], [38]. Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. "Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. Little is known of the Cretaceous lower aquifer, which is composed of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire, with fossil and highly mineralized groundwater (GWP 2013). Jacobss indices based on kills also revealed that female lions showed also a preference for kudu, medium Bovidae and Suidae in all seasons (Fig. We expected lion kill locations to be influenced by the trend in prey aggregation at artificial waterholes, resulting in seasonal variation in kill distribution; closer to waterholes in dry periods and further away in wet periods. In African semi-arid savannas, surface-water is a heterogeneously distributed, limiting resource which becomes scarcer as the dry season progresses. Our results showed that lions are opportunist hunters with prey ranging from mice to elephant. Lake Chad Basin Aquifer - Cretaceous to Quaternary. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. Boreholes are between 60 and 200 m deep (UN 1988). Swakopmund, Pretoria In Douala, studies have shown nitrate pollution (Wirmvem et al. Groundwater in the upper Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is typically of Na-Cl type and brackish. Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). In the Hwange ecosystem, lion habitat selection and movements are driven by waterholes [45] and lions appear to rotate their hunting behaviour between these different hunting grounds [46]. Given the propensity of kill investigations to be biased towards large prey, this is likely an underestimation and it should be considered that juvenile zebra are highly selected for by lions. No faecal samples were obtained in the wet season, owing to rapid deterioration during the rains and removal by seasonally abundant coprophagous insects. Yevalla, G-M S, Blaise B B, Emmanuel M, Seth R E, Beka T and Tabod T C. 2020. Medium Bovidae contributed least in the late dry season (Fig. Seasonal differences in the preference of prey were tested using Friedman rank sum tests. feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. Water Resources in Cameroon This is the sum of renewable groundwater and renewable surface water resources (both internal and external) Renewable Water Resources 283 billion m/year Total Renewable Water Resources (2017) Water Resources per Capita 11,769 m/person/year Renewable Water per Inhabitant (2017) Water Dependency 4 % Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected zone around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. French heritage and language dominates, but English speaking regions periodically agitate for more autonomy and sometimes even separation. We achieved an asymptote on species accumulation curves after 100 hair samples. Lake Chad Prey shift might be a response to larger variations in local prey abundance, perhaps over longer periods as shown for the Kruger National Park [21], or in ecosystems where more significant variation occurs in prey abundance over shorter time scales as shown for the Serengeti [41]. Cameroon, a country located in Central Africa, is one of those places. 2). Faecal analysis revealed a higher number of species occurring in the lion diet (20 species), owing to the detection of more small prey items, unexpectedly including climbing mice (Dendromus spp.) Y Xu and B Usher, Taylor and Francis/Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 47-55. Approximately 98% of the annual rainfall occurs from October to April and the long-term annual average (calculated for the period 19182007) is 632 mm (range: 3241160 mm). The significant role played by bitcoin for businesses! In total, agriculture contributes around 40% of GDP. That was the only source of water for the entire Mambele community before WWF rehabilitated this stand tap. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Recharge occurs to the confined aquifer only in limited areas (GWP 2013). Juveniles were taken almost exclusively (Fig. Sanou, S M, Temgoua, E, Guetiya, W R, Arienzo, A, Losito, F, Fokam, J, Onohiol, J F, Djeunang, B, Zambou, N F, Russo, G, Antonini, G, Pan, A and Colizzi, V. 2015. Much of Cameroons energy comes from hydroelectric power from rivers in the south of the country, with the remainder from oil-powered power stations. Volcanic centres form moderately to highly productive fractured/weathered aquifers. Cameroon has seen relatively high political and social stability since independence, with the same president since 1982. During the study period, adult male and female lions were sighted together in only 7% of the sightings (n=1710). Juveniles also represented an important proportion of the giraffe killed by lions (Fig. Groundwater usually has low mineral content, with total dissolved solids rarely exceeding 300 mg/l, and conductivities generally between 30 and 350 uS/cm. Browsers, not grazers: if you see a rhino mowing grassland, it will be a southern white. Proportions of each age class were relatively constant with an increase in the predation on juveniles by males in the wet season (Fig. Marion Valeix, Affiliation: This is consistent with previous findings suggesting that female lion home range size was constrained by the abundance of kudu in the early dry season [40]. Lion prey species found at kills classified in 8 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon. There are a series of parallel faults running northeast/southwest, with displacements that can reach 1000 m, and associated with large volcanic massifs of various ages and compositions. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. A BGR project funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) investigated groundwater quality related to health in Yaound and produced a number of reports. As such, the regular need to access drinking water constrains the movement of herbivores, and hence their distribution in the dry season [9][12]. Etosha It was in Etosha that a study proved that elephant can communicate using infrasonic sounds; they literally 'bounce' these off a thermal inversion layer in the atmosphere. The basin is shared by Chad, Niger, the Central African Republic, Nigeria, Cameroon, Algeria, Sudan and Libya. Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. Sights in Tsavo - Lonely Planet. Largely acidic groundwater, with pH from 4 to 7. Dots represent data outside this range. UN Human Development Index (HDI) [highest = 1] (2014)*. Surface water. In the 19th century, soldiers of the Fulani Empire founded the Adamawa Amirate in the north of present-day Cameroon, while various other chiefdoms held power across other parts of the country. Like the continent includes the islands of Cape Verde, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, and thus! Most women and many children walked 10-15km every day just to retrieve unclean, contaminated water from sources also used by cattle and wildlife for drinking and bathing. Our office hours are 08:00 - 19:00 (GMT+2). Temperatures vary drastically in the Kalahari, going below zero on winter nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees Celsius during summer days. This is reflected by the declines in certain rare herbivores when artificial water points allowed more common herbivores and resident predators access to areas previously too dry to support them [48], [50]. Whiskers indicate the range between 10% and 90% percentiles. British Geological Survey. This section provides a summary of the hydrogeology of the main aquifers in Cameroon. We thank Matt Hayward, Craig Tambling and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on a previous draft. This study revealed seasonal patterns in secondary prey consumption by female lions partly based on prey ecology with browsers, such as giraffe and kudu, mainly consumed in the early dry season, and grazers, such as zebra and suids, contributing more to female diet in the late dry season. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. Dashed and dotted lines indicate mean proportions in the amalgamated kills for males and females respectively. Juveniles represented a high proportion of the zebras taken by lions in all seasons. Hence, lions appear to respond to the high abundance of megaherbivores in this ecosystem. The prey items detected were categorised similarly to the prey detected from the kills. Samples were collected during kill site investigations, air dried and stored in paper bags for later analysis. A male Lion will develop a mane by year 3, this will vary in color from blond to black. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition between the early and the late dry seasons (2=0.92, df=8, p=0.99). 2015) of groundwater. Volcanic massifs from the Adamaoua to the Atlantic. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. Buffalo (the highest contribution in all seasons for both sexes) showed a constant contribution to male diet throughout the seasons, and a lower contribution to female diet in the early dry season. An average of 300 people depend on the water source, says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. Everyone in our neighbourhood depends on it, says Akoela, a Class 6 pupil of the local government primary school. Ten hairs could not be identified (2% of all hairs collected). Some years back some boreholes were rehabilitated by either the local council or the community. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Below this there can be a deeper fractured aquifer, which usually has low permeability. Unique social system found in famous Tsavo lions - EurekAlert! Down a slope surrounded by evergreen forest in Mambele village near Lobeke National Park in the East Region of Cameroon springs a water source from rocks. Values>0 indicate preference, values<0 suggest use but avoidance. Female diet composition in the early dry season was significantly different from the other seasons (2early dry-late dry=19.06, df=7, p=0.008; 2early dry-wet=20.34, df=7, p=0.005; 2late dry-wet=14.07, df=7, p=0.05). This allows conversations they can hear for 100km further than normal. It is located in banakata. What are the major rivers in Cameroon? Conceived and designed the experiments: ZD AJL DWM FM. Groundwater from volcanic aquifers is widely used by the bottled water industry. Nigeria, Chad, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo. broad scope, and wide readership a perfect fit for your research every time. Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. Because of this water activity the front quarters of the Okavango Delta lions are more developed than those of other lions. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. Africa Groundwater Atlas: Hydrogeology of Cameroon. Where multi-species classes were defined, biomass was calculated as the average mass of the species included. The middle Continental Terminal, of Tertiary to Quaternary age, comprises alternating sandstone and clay layers, which are 450 to 620 m from the surface (GWP 2013). Cubs have brownish spots that fade by 3 months but may persist, on there belly as an adult. Many springs emerge from hill slopes, some of them thermal (Mafany and Fantong 2006). David W. Macdonald, Contributed equally to this work with: Positional data were recorded hourly during the night and retrieved at regular intervals. Found in the southeast, and north of the Adamaoua, around Poli, this is made up of a series of schists-amphibolites with intercalations of quartzitic sandstones and phyllites. In spite of the presence of a stand tap at the centre of the village, many villagers still rely on the water source. 2018. Additionally, giraffe were consumed in proportion to their availability in the early and late dry seasons by female lions, and contributed 18% of biomass to female lion diet. Sossusvlei First, seasonal importance of each species was assessed by (i) investigating, for lion males and females separately, the frequency of occurrence of prey species at kills, and (ii) comparing seasonal results from faecal data with no sex differentiation. For females, some seasonal differences were detected due to the lower contribution of buffalo to female diet in the early dry season, compensated for by an increase in secondary prey consumption, mainly kudu and medium Bovidae. The upland areas have a mild climate with high rainfall. Cameroon has one of the strongest economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Wirmvem, M J, Ohba, T, Nche, L A, Kamtchueng, B T, Kongnso, W E, Mimba, M E, Bafon, T G, Yaguchi, M, Takem, G E, Fantong, W Y, and Ako, A A. Karoo Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. Koum, Babouri-Figuil, Mayo Oulo, Mayo Sorawel, Mamf, Bamusso and Djerem basins. Buffalo consistently emerged as the most frequently utilised prey in all seasons by both male (56%) and female (33%) lions, contributing the most to lion dietary biomass. The least mineralised groundwater overall is in basement aquifers. We were horrified seeing first hand the daily struggle for survival these precious women faced and our hearts went out to them. We're sorry. Cameroon also has a number of smaller lakes throughout the country. However, water quality in Cameroon has improved in the last decade. Cameroon: Sahara Desert A Threat to Livelihood and Bio-Diversity. Groundwater Need Assessment - Lake Chad Basin. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. Lions of the okavango delta. The pools go by a variety of names: prairie potholes, whale wallows, hog wallows, sinks, and kettles. There is no evidence for widespread inorganic contamination of groundwaters, even in urban areas, but there is widespread bacteriological contamination of shallow groundwater in urban areas, such as Yaound and Douala, derived from domestic, industrial and hospital waste (Mafany and Fandong 2006). Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Officially known as the Republic of Cameroon, this country is surrounded by six other African countries, as well as three bodies of water. The distance between 215 lion kills and the nearest water source was analyzed using generalized linear models. Some seasonal patterns were suggested for secondary prey, however. These are overlain by a series of Plio-Quaternary marine sands and estuarine clays and silts. Four good reasons to indulge in cryptocurrency! Water and Sanitation Program. Following established methods, hair cross-sections and scale pattern imprints were prepared for microscopic analysis using a Watson Microsystem 70 microscope [28], [29]. 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). Others walk over two kilometres to get the precious liquid. 1). The kill sites were single kill events. The sex and age classes of the prey found were recorded when possible and age class was determined using lower jawbone tooth wear against known age collections held by the wildlife authority. Faecal data, mainly representative of female diet, suggest that kudu (revealed as the second main prey for females from kill data) may be an equally important prey species for female lions and that this species may be under-represented by kill data. It was not until the recent century where the conditions of lions in captivity have improved. However, the consistently higher selection for, and biomass contributed by, buffalo during all seasons observed here suggests that prey shifting, i.e. Artificial waterholes act as powerful hubs of predation activity throughout the year. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, Molua EL and Lambi CM. Lake Jipe provides water for the wildlife species in the park like the lions, elephants and among others when they are thirsty. Copyright: 2013 Davidson et al. In 51% of the faeces found at kill sites, one of the detected prey species was the same as the consumed species at that kill site (see also [4]). We do not have to go that far anymore says Madam Ngenge Ndo Lydie, a local restaurant owner. Water Supply and Sanitation in Cameroon. Your email address will not be published. Small sedimentary basins - including Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil, Sorawel, Mayo Oulo and Mamf - Cretaceous. Thus the importance of buffalo as prey is despite dry season variations when nutrition and water deprivation weaken susceptible individuals (young and old). Funding: The work was supported by the Darwin Initiative for Biodiversity, Disney Wildlife Conservation Foundation, SAVE Foundation, Regina B. Frankenberg Foundation the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation and Instalite Contracting Bulawayo. Your use of information provided by this website is at your own risk. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition for male lions (2early dry-late dry=4.13, df=7, p=0.76; 2early dry-wet=8.63, df=7, p=0.28; 2late dry-wet=7.85, df=7, p=0.35). For female lions, kudu and to a lesser extent the group medium Bovidae are the most important secondary prey. 2011. The majority of the population is employed in agriculture, much of it at subsistence scale with surplus produce sold in local markets. Schoor Avenue, Bellville, Cape Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, Current address: Marwell Wildlife, Colden Common, Winchester, United Kingdom, Affiliations: 1 being water and season. However, in the dry season in many rural areas, demand for surface water resources exceeds supply, and much of the rural population relies on groundwater. WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities," explains Njounan. For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Major surface water features of Cameroon. The field assistance of Dr. Daniel Parker, B. Stapelkamp, Nicholas Elliot, Jalle Claypole, Agrippa Moyo, Lowani Mpofu and the rangers of the Hwange National Park was invaluable. Values >0 indicate preference, values <0 suggest use but avoidance. Whereas zebra are avoided in the wet season by both sexes and in the early dry season by females, they are consumed in proportion to their availability in the late dry season by both sexes and in the early dry season by males (Fig 2). What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabweabout school : Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; What water sources do lions exploit in zimbabwemaryland lacrosse camps 2021. 1). Felix Murindagomo, 2020 WWF - World Wide Fund For Nature 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund) WWF is a WWF Registered Trademark Creative Commons license. Africa Groundwater Atlas >> Hydrogeology by country, Cameroon. Cameroon has a dense network of perennial rivers. Generally, flow patterns of all Cameroon rivers are typified by rainfall. In neighbouring Yenga community (20 km from Mambele) where WWF also rehabilitated a stand tap, some residents cover a distance of more than 3 km to get water. and common mice (Mus spp.). However, no significant shift in prey was revealed. Hairs from more than one prey species were found in 81% of the collected faecal samples. Radio-collars were removed or replaced within the framework of long-term monitoring protocols. This suggested that surface-water resources form passive traps and contribute to the structuring of lion foraging behaviour. Contrastingly during wet seasons, pools of water are more available throughout the landscape and herbivore distributions more homogeneous and dispersed. Hence, lions appear to respond to the confined aquifer only in limited areas GWP... 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'Transboundary groundwater Management in Africa ' ZD AJL DWM FM more available throughout the landscape cameroon what are the specific water sources the lions exploit? herbivore distributions more and... The country, with the same president since 1982 zero on winter nights and reaching as high 40... After 100 hair samples predation on juveniles by males in the wet season Craig Tambling and two reviewers! Was analyzed using generalized linear models is employed in agriculture, much of cameroons energy from... Replaced within the framework of long-term monitoring protocols presence of a kill a huge and water! Including Hama Kossou, Babouri-Figuil, Mayo Oulo and Mamf - Cretaceous groups... Mineralised groundwater overall is in basement aquifers nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees during... Lakes throughout the country obtained in the preference of prey were tested using rank. Proportions relative to frequency of occurrence zimbabwe Parks and wildlife Management Authority, Causeway, Harare, zimbabwe,! Corporation, # C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US ( GMT+2 ) number which... Tested using Friedman rank sum tests: the authors have declared that competing. Are between 60 and 200 m deep ( UN 1988 ) kills classified in 8 and. Craig Tambling and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on a previous draft we reported the relative contribution each! Pp 47-55 and Mamf - Cretaceous own risk Sorawel, Mamf, Bamusso and Djerem basins, below.